Editor’s note: We welcome a guest blog post from Scott Jones, MLIS, Class Facilitator at Mohawk College, Hamilton, Ontario.
Archival theory and practice in Canada didn’t emerge in a vacuum—it’s deeply rooted in European traditions that stretch back thousands of years. Understanding this lineage helps us appreciate why certain principles, like respect des fonds, remain central to archival work today. I see a disconnect between how Canada got here, and how archives differ from other institutions. This post serves to introduce the early history of archives and move towards a Canadian perspective of archival value and history.
A Brief History of Archives
The concept of archives began with the invention of writing. Ancient civilizations like the Assyrians (750–600 BC) maintained state archives on clay tablets. The Egyptians used papyrus, while the Greeks and Romans preferred parchment and vellum. These early records documented everything from legal decisions to correspondence, laying the groundwork for systematic record-keeping.
Even the Vatican Archives, one of the oldest continuous archival institutions, traces its origins to the 3rd century AD, during the Roman Empire.
During the Middle Ages, archival development stalled in Europe. Nobles led nomadic lives, and only essential documents—mainly financial or legal—were preserved. However, as noble residences became more permanent and paper became widely used, record-keeping practices improved. Still, archives remained decentralized and scattered. By 1782, France had 1,225 separate archives, with 405 in Paris alone!
The French Revolution marked a turning point in Western archival history. In 1789, France established a national archive, and by 1794, it centralized all provincial archives under one administration. Three revolutionary ideas emerged:
- Centralization of archival systems.
- Government responsibility for preserving records.
- Public access to archives—an early gesture toward transparency.
These principles spread across Europe, especially in territories occupied by Napoleon. Countries adapted them to fit their own administrative structures, although political fragmentation delayed progress in places like Germany and Russia.
Archives: Administrative vs. Scholarly Roles
Initially, European archives, served administrative functions, staffed by government officials. But post-revolution nationalism sparked interest in national history. Documents like medieval charters became cultural treasures, and scholars began to take over archival roles.
This shift led to:
- Subject-based classification of records to aid research.
- Neglect of recent government records, deemed not “historical.”
- Loss of context, making it hard to trace the origins and sequence of events in records.
Respect des Fonds: A Defining Principle
By 1841, France faced chaos due to subject-based classification. During the Revolution, millions of documents were destroyed or scattered when feudal privileges were abolished and cultural materials were burned. By the early 19th century, archivists tried to reorganize what remained, grouping records by topic rather than origin. The government reintroduced a system grouping records by their creating agency—a concept known as respect des fonds:
“The whole of the documents of any nature that every administrative body, every physical or corporate entity, automatically and organically accumulates by reason of its function or of its activity.”
This principle revolutionized archival practice in Europe, emphasizing the importance of preserving the original context of records. It remains a cornerstone of archival theory in Europe and North America, including in Canada.
Legacy and Influence in Canada
Modern Canadian archival systems reflect these European developments:
- Centralized national archives modeled after the French system.
- Respect des fonds as a guiding principle in arrangement and description.
- Dual roles of archives—serving both administrative needs and scholarly research.
Depending on the perceived function, Canadian archives may fall under different government departments, such as Education, Culture, or Government Services, echoing the historical tension between administrative and scholarly priorities. Canada has also from these European pillars built its own systems known as the Rules of Archival Description, and the Total Archives Concept
Rules of Archival Description
The Rules for Archival Description (RAD) is Canada’s national standard for describing archival materials. First published in 1990 and last revised in 2008, RAD provides a standardized framework for creating various levels of descriptions of records, starting at the fonds level and moving down through sous-fonds, series, sub-series, files, and items. Its purpose is to ensure consistency and clarity in archival descriptions across Canada, making it easier for researchers to understand the provenance, context, and content of archival holdings. RAD is based on traditional archival principles and shares structural similarities with AACR2, but is tailored to reflect the unique requirements of archival description rather than bibliographic cataloging.
Total Archives & Modern Interpretations
The Public Archives of Canada (now Library & Archives Canada), established in 1872, emerged from the nation-building spirit following Confederation in 1867, reflecting European trends but introducing a distinctive approach. Unlike European and American traditions, which limited archives to government records and left private papers to libraries, Canada’s first Dominion Archivist advocated for preserving all historically valuable materials—government and private—in one institution. This philosophy evolved into the Total Archives concept, a uniquely Canadian contribution to archival theory, which integrates different media types including textual records, photographs, maps, films into a single archival repository. Institutions like the Archives of Ontario exemplify this model, documenting both governmental activities and private lives to capture the full scope of provincial history.
In recent years, archives have faced growing pressure to address systemic biases and colonial legacies. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s 2015 Calls to Action (Sections 67–70) specifically targeted toward museums and archives, presents a compelling argument for inclusivity and sensitivity toward Indigenous communities. This has provoked archivists to reassess Eurocentric classification systems, identify harmful or traumatic records, and involve Indigenous communities in shaping collections. Some archives now provide content warnings and are revising finding aids to reflect cultural sensitivity and knowledge. National bodies, such as the Association of Canadian Archivists (ACA), have responded with frameworks like the Response to the Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Taskforce, signaling a commitment to decolonization and reconciliation.
Beyond Indigenous issues, archives are confronting broader inequities affecting BIPOC and 2SLGBTQIA+ communities. Historically, these groups have been underrepresented in collections and marginalized within the profession itself. The ACA acknowledges that Canadian archival systems are rooted in Western European practices, perpetuating colonialism, racism, sexism, ableism, and other forms of exclusion. Recognizing that archives actively shape public memory and are never neutral, the ACA supports movements such as Black Lives Matter and Idle No More and has adopted Equity Commitments such as a living plan outlining actions and resources to foster diversity and justice within archival practice.
This transformation is ongoing and complex. It involves not only diversifying collections but also reforming hiring practices, dismantling systemic barriers, and engaging with equity-seeking communities. Educational initiatives and professional development are critical for archivists and librarians to understand these issues and implement inclusive strategies. While libraries have often led the way in addressing diversity and inclusion, archives are increasingly embracing these principles, signaling a shift toward a more representative and socially responsible archival landscape.
Final Thoughts
The evolution of archival theory in Canada is a story of adaptation, innovation, and the enduring value of preserving our documentary heritage. From ancient clay tablets to digital repositories, the principles forged in Europe continue to shape how Canadian archivists organize, preserve, and provide access to the records that define our collective memory. Though this is not without its issues, and there is a movement across Canada to be more inclusive and understanding of the many minorities, aboriginals, and LGBTQ2+ communities. Some progress has been made to decolonize Canadian archives, and move away from our colonial past, but we must remember the mistakes of the past, to move forward to a new and better future.
Works Cited
Association of Canadian archivists. Reconciliation framework. (n.d.). https://archivists.ca/Reconciliation-Framework
Haworth, Kent M. “The Voyage of RAD: From the Old World to the New.” Archivaria 35 (Spring 1993): 55–63. https://archivaria.ca/index.php/archivaria/article/view/11885/12838 , preserved at https://perma.cc/GFH5-YWSY.
Mohawk College. (2023). Lecture 1: Introduction to Archives. D2L – Ontario Learn.
Posner, E. (1940). Some Aspects of Archival Development since the French Revolution . The American Archivist , 3(3), 159–172.